（1） The practice of austerities， especially for the purpose of attaining liberation. This method of aiming toward salvation was widely practiced in India at the time of S/a^kyamuni， and was the primary method he practiced before his revision of his worldview. Still practiced today in India （Pali tapa; Skt. tapas）， it is believed that self-inflicted suffering has the effect of raising the consciousness to the extent that one may have an awakening experience. In its usage in Buddhist texts， the term often refers to the incomplete practices of non-Buddhists （外道）. （2） A reference to the twenty dhuta 二十头陀. （3） The practice of renunciation of worldly possessions 放弃.